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C-13: Cloning and Bio-Ethics |
What are the Ethical issues?
From human cloning to selling sperm
Cloning
Cloning consists of creating cells, tissues or entire organisms that are genetically
identical to the original. Only a century ago, the idea of cloning humans seemed like
science fiction. However, in the last half of the twentieth century, scientists have
been cloning increasingly more complex forms of life, from tadpoles to mammals. To do
so, they remove the nucleus from an egg and replace it with the nucleus from a cell
from another organism. Since the resulting embryo has DNA from only one source, its
genetic material is identical to that source (the body that supplied the nucleus).
Of all the reproductive and genetic technologies currently in use or being developed,
human reproductive cloning is the most controversial. Still, it is only a matter of
time before the technology exists to clone human beings. This raises several ethical
questions:
- Should human reproductive cloning be prohibited?
- Should it be allowed under certain conditions, such as for organ donations, to
provide a child for an infertile couple, or to replace a child that died?
- If allowed, how will access be controlled? What legal rights would a clone have?
- How far should reproductive cloning go? Should scientists be able to alter an organism's
DNA to create “designer babies” with specific characteristics?
- If prohibited, should other forms of cloning (such as therapeutic human cloning)
be permitted?
Cloning Human Embryos for Research
While reproductive cloning receives the most publicity, another type is human therapeutic
cloning, also called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Human therapeutic cloning uses a
type of cell called stem cells. Stem cells have three distinguishing properties that
make them valuable to researchers:
- They are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for a long time, possibly
for the life of the organism
- They are undifferentiated (they do not have a specific shape and function, such
as mature heart cells or skin cells)
- They have the capacity to develop into differentiated cells with specialized functions
Scientists believe stem cell research has enormous potential in the treatment of age-related
degenerative diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, and congestive heart failure.
For example, Parkinson’s disease is caused by the loss of neurons in the brain that
produce dopamine. Scientists believe that stem cells taken from a patient could be differentiated
to become dopamine-producing cells, which would then be injected into the patient. Stem
cells could also be used to test the effectiveness of new drugs.
Many researchers believe that stem cells derived from an embryo – called embryonic
stem cells - have more value than adult stem cells. The ethical dilemma lies in the
fact that removing the stem cells from the original cell kills the embryo. Opponents
of stem cell research believe this type of cloning is just an unethical as human reproductive
cloning.
Surrogate Motherhood
Surrogate motherhood happens when a couple hires a woman to bear the couple’s child.
Informal surrogate arrangements have been occurring since ancient times; for example,
a woman may agree to bear a child for her infertile sister. However, legislation covering
surrogate arrangements was not implemented until the 1980s. Surrogate parenting has
several advantages over traditional adoption:
- The waiting time is much shorter. Infertile couples frequently wait years to adopt
a child. With a surrogate, the waiting period is only nine months.
- By the time they discover they are infertile, prospective parents may be too old
to be accepted by an adoption agency.
- The couple have a biological link to the child
Today, there are two types of surrogacy arrangements. Traditional surrogacy involves
artificial insemination. The husband’s sperm is implanted into the surrogate’s womb
and she carries the child to term. After the child’s birth, the husband acknowledges
paternity and the couple legally adopts the child. Traditional surrogacy is always used
in cases where the wife is unable to produce eggs.
Gestational surrogacy uses in vitro fertilization. An egg from the wife is fertilized
with the husband’s sperm and implanted into the surrogate’s womb. This technique may
be used in situations where the wife can produce eggs but for some reason cannot carry
a child to term. While more expensive than traditional surrogacy, many couples prefer
it because there is no biological link between the child and the surrogate.
The issue of surrogate motherhood brings up several ethical questions:
- How can legislators prevent “rent a womb” contracts, where a woman extorts large
sums of money from an infertile couple to bear a child?
- How should a surrogate be compensated for legitimate expenses, such as loss of
income due to pregnancy?
- Who has parental rights if the surrogate wants to keep the child?
Profiting from Infertility – The Commercialization of Sperm and Eggs
Selling sperm and eggs is legal in many countries. Infertile couples routinely pay
up several thousand dollars for eggs, while sperm donors can make up to $200 per specimen.
Furthermore, infertile couples can now increase their chances of having babies with
supermodel good looks or Mensa IQ’s, simply by picking and choosing between sperm or
egg donors. For example, California’s Repository for Germinal Choice only accepts sperm
donors with a record of achievement and high IQs (previous donors include three Nobel
Prize winners). And there have been several reports of supermodels auctioning their
eggs online for up to $50,000.
- Even less famous individuals are capitalizing on the trend by selling their eggs
or sperm to the highest bidder. In 2002, two British female university students sold
their eggs to a US company for $6,000 and $8,000, respectively. This brings up several
ethical questions concerning the rights of children conceived through reproductive
technologies:
- Is it fair to breed children to have certain characteristics?
- How will it affect children emotionally to know that one of their biological parents
contributed eggs or sperm for money?
Donor Anonymity
Most experts agree that children have a right to know any relevant medical information
about their biological parents, including sperm donors and surrogate mothers. However,
they disagree over whether these children have the right to know the identity of, and
possibly meet, their biological parents.
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