Executive Branch of Government

The Prime Minister & Cabinet in Canada

Jay Makarenko — Fri, 01 Jun 2007 00:00:00 -0600

The Prime Minister and Cabinet sit at the pinnacle of executive political power in Canada. They are responsible for leading the nation and deciding the direction of national public policy. This article provides an introduction to Prime Minister and Cabinet as institutions in the Canadian government. More specifically, this article discusses the roles and powers of the federal Cabinet and the Prime Minister of Canada, the practices that govern the operation of Cabinet, as well as debates and issues surrounding the political offices.

What is the Federal Cabinet?

Role and powers of the Cabinet in Canada

What is the Prime Minister of Canada?

Role and powers of the Prime Minister of Canada

Federal Cabinet Rules and Practices

Practices that govern the operation of Cabinet

Issues and Debates on the Prime Minister and Cabinet

Responsible government, power of the prime minister, and representation

Links for Further Information

List of links for more on this topic

What is the Federal Cabinet?

The role and powers of the Cabinet in Canada

Cabinet as Government

The Cabinet is a body of political officials that decides the policies and direction of the nation and administers the day-to-day operation of its government. When political scientists and commentators speak of the “Canadian government,” what they are, in fact, referring to is the Cabinet. Interestingly, the Constitution, which sets out the structure of Canada’s governing system, makes no explicit reference to this powerful political institution. Instead, it invests executive political power and authority in the Monarchy and his or her representative in Canada (the Governor General). In practice, however, it is customary for the Cabinet to exercise this power (albeit, of the in the name of the Monarchy), while the Monarch and Governor General act primarily as ceremonial figures.

For more information on Canada’s system of government:
Mapleleafweb: Canada’s Parliamentary Government

Cabinet Ministers

The modern Cabinet consists of political officials called “Cabinet Ministers” or “Ministers of the Crown.” These Ministers are given the responsibility of overseeing specific areas of public policy (such as finance, national defence, or foreign affairs). The most important Cabinet Minister is the Prime Minister of Canada, who is the head of government and the leader of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister has special powers that allow him or her to dominate Cabinet deliberation and control the direction of government.

See the What is the Prime Minister of Canada? section of this article for more information on the history, powers and responsibilities of the Prime Minister.

A Cabinet may also include “Ministers of State." These are junior Cabinet officials that do not have their own government department. They are, instead, often given the responsibility for aiding a senior Cabinet Minister, and will have specialized duties within that Minister’s department. It may also be the case that Ministers of State are given responsibility over some temporary government agency or program that is expected to last only a short period of time.

History of the Cabinet

In understanding why the Cabinet has come to play such a pivotal role in Canadian government, it is important to examine its historical development. When Canada was formed in 1867, it simply adopted the British system of government (often referred to as the Westminster parliamentary system). An important component of the British system is based on unwritten constitutional customs and conventions that have been adopted over hundreds of years. The practice of cabinet government is one of these unwritten customs.

So where did the Cabinet come from? Early in its history, Britain was an absolute monarchy with political power residing within a hereditary King or Queen. The monarch, however, did not govern alone, and usually relied on the aid of a royal court or council. These were special bodies of advisors that would council the monarch on public policy and oversee the day-to-day administration of the kingdom. The origins of the modern Canadian Cabinet can be traced back to these first royal courts and councils.

As Britain developed its Parliamentary system in the 13th and 14th centuries, it institutionalized these royal courts into a special body of advisors called the Privy Council. By the 16th century, however, the Privy Council had grown too large to be of any use as a day-to-day advisory body. As such, British Monarchs began the practice of relying on a smaller committee of the Privy Council, which eventually become know as the ‘Cabinet’.

As Britain moved away from its purely monarchical system, and towards a more democratic system, the role of the Cabinet, with respect to the functioning of government, changed substantially. Responsibility for actually leading government was transferred, over time, from the Monarchy to the Cabinet. Moreover, with the introduction of responsible government (or government responsible to the people), it became customary for the Cabinet to be dependent upon, and accountable to, the democratically elected legislature, instead of the Monarchy.

When Canada was formed upon Confederation in 1867, it simply adopted this British Parliamentary system and its cabinet government. Canada was given its own Privy Council – the Queen’s Privy Council for Canada; the Canadian Cabinet was a special committee of this body. The Canadian Cabinet was given the power to govern day-to-day affairs, and was made responsible to the democratically elected legislature in Canada (better known as the House of Commons).

See the Cabinet Rules and Practices section of this article for more information on the operation of Canada’s Cabinet.

Powers & Responsibilities of the Cabinet

As the central body in Canada’s Executive branch of government, the Cabinet has many important powers and responsibilities.

Powers of the Crown: To begin with, the Cabinet enjoys several powers that were previously under the complete discretion of the Monarch. While these powers still technically belong to the Crown, it is customary for the Monarch or Governor General to exercise them according to the Cabinet’s wishes. These powers include: the power to submit money bills to Parliament; the power to summon and dissolve Parliament; the power to grant pardons; the power to appoint key state officials, such as Senators and Judges; and, several powers regarding foreign relations, including those governing the signing of international treaties and agreements, and those pertaining to declarations of war and peace.

For more information on the powers of the Crown:
Mapleleafweb: The Monarchy in Canada

Legislative Process Powers: The Cabinet also has powers which stem from from the leadership role it enjoys within the Canadian legislative process. The Cabinet has the power to create and submit legislation to Parliament for approval by Canada’s two legislative chambers – the House of Commons and the Senate. The Cabinet also has considerable powers over the manner in which legislation is deliberated upon by these legislatures. The Cabinet, for example, can shorten or extend the time spent deliberating a piece of legislation at the various levels of the legislative process.

For more information on the legislative process in Canada:
Parliament of Canada: The Legislative Process
Mapleleafweb: Parliamentary Government in Canada: Basic Organization and Practices

Administrative Powers: The Cabinet also enjoys key administrative powers, a product of the relationship between Cabinet Ministers and the state bureaucracy. Most Cabinet Ministers are the formal heads of a particular government department or agency, and, in this capacity, will act as the department’s chief director and administrator. In this context, Cabinet Ministers set departmental priorities, determine the department’s bureaucratic organization, and oversee the hiring and firing of key departmental personnel.

Quasi-Judicial Powers: Finally, the Cabinet also holds quasi-judicial powers. The Canadian state has a number of regulatory agencies and boards that oversee the operation of important sectors of the Canadian economy and society. The Cabinet is responsible for acting as a court of appeal for many of these regulatory bodies. A perfect example is the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (or CRTC), which regulates the Canadian broadcasting and communications industries. If a company or group disagrees with a particular decision of the CRTC, it may appeal that decision to the federal Cabinet (if the Cabinet so chooses to hear the appeal). That said, a Minister may not, however, intervene in the day-to-day workings of such regulatory agencies and boards.

What is the Prime Minister of Canada?

Role and powers of the Prime Minister of Canada

Head of Government

The Prime Minister is the most powerful political official in the Cabinet and is officially recognized as the Head of Government in Canada. This status stems from the special powers and responsibilities attached to the position, which allow the Prime Minister’s ability to dominate Cabinet deliberation and decision-making (see below for more on the Prime Minister’s powers).

It is important to recognize that, in Canada’s Parliamentary system, separate persons hold the titles of Head of Government and Head of State. While the Prime Minister is the official Head of Government, and is responsible for leading the day-to-day governing of the nation, the Canadian Monarch is the Head of State. The Monarch’s position, however, is mainly ceremonial; it comes with very little political power. This Parliamentary tradition differs significantly from other systems of government, such as the Presidential system that governs the United States; in that context, the US President is both the Head of Government and the Head of State.

For more on the Canadian Monarchy:
Mapleleafweb: The Monarchy in Canada

History of the Prime Minister

In the same way the Canadian Cabinet is rooted in British Parliamentary tradition, so too is the Office of the Prime Minister. Canada adopted the British practice of having a Cabinet led by Prime Minister when the country was formed in 1867. Interestingly enough, in the British tradition there was no official leader of the British Cabinet until the 19th century. Prior to that time, Cabinet Ministers, enjoyed control over their respective departments and worked in concert to address broad government matters. By the 1800s, however, it became customary to recognize a “senior” or “first” minister in the Cabinet, who was later given the title of Prime Minister.

Since Confederation, the role of Prime Minister has undergone considerable change in Canada. In the early years, it was customary for the Prime Minister to exercise very little control over other senior Cabinet Ministers. In fact, it was common to refer to the Prime Minister as simply the “First amongst equals.” Today, however, it is customary for the Prime Minister to dominate his or her Cabinet, and to play a much more central role in government decision-making.

The Powers & Responsibilities of the Prime Minister

The ability of the Prime Minister to dominate Cabinet and the direction of government is due, in large part, to powers and responsibilities that are uniquely associated with this position. These powers and responsibilities include:

Powers of the Crown: It is customary for the Prime Minister to exercise many of the powers that were formerly under the discretion of the Monarchy. While these powers technically still belong to the Monarchy, they are exercised completely on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, for example, decides when to dissolve Parliament and when to call a general election. It is even customary for the Prime Minister to choose who will be the Governor General (the Monarch’s representative in Canada).
Forming the Cabinet: Much of the power enjoyed by a Prime Minister stems from his or her authority to form the Cabinet. It is the Prime Minister who decides who will actually make up the Cabinet, and what portfolios will be assigned to each person. Accordingly, Ministers owe their allegiance to the Prime Minister, who can promote or demote them, ask for their resignation, and, if necessary, dismiss them from Cabinet altogether. These powers tend to keep Ministers both submissive and supportive of the Prime Minister and his/her policies and priorities.
Appointing Public Servants: In addition to appointing Cabinet Ministers, the Prime Minister also has the power to dictate who holds many key offices in the public service. This includes the appointment of Senators, Supreme Court judges, deputy ministers, and heads of government agencies, boards, and corporations. The ability to exercise such power helps keep a Prime Minister’s ‘followers’ on side, while allowing a Prime Minister to impose his/her ideological stamp on much of government. In this way, a Prime Minister who believes in a particular vision of how government should function can use the powers of the Prime Minister’s Office to appoint persons of like-minded thinking to key government positions.
Organizing Government: In addition to appointments, the Prime Minister also has significant powers over the actual organization of government. Subject to usual routine Parliamentary approval, the Prime Minister has the ability to create new departments and agencies, transform or abolish old ones, and privatize or nationalize industries and corporations. He or she also has the power to assign specific mandates and priorities to individual government departments and agencies, with or without the permission of the responsible Cabinet Minister.
Senior Diplomat: Finally, the Prime Minister is often seen as the nation’s chief diplomat. This is particularly true in the modern era of summit diplomacy when Heads of Governments regularly meet with one another on a face-to-face basis. (This includes bilateral summits with the US President, as well as G8 meetings, Commonwealth conferences, meetings involving La Francophonie, and occasional appearances at the United Nations.)

All told, these collective powers and responsibilities enable the Prime Minister to dominate government decision-making.

The Prime Ministers of Canada (1867-2007)

Name	Party	Tenure	Birth Place	Adult Residence	Age as PM	Occupation
Sir John A. Macdonald	Con	1867- 1873	Britain	ON	52-76	Law
Alexander Mackenzie	Lib	1873- 1878	Britain	ON	51-56	Journalist
Sir John A. Macdonald	Con	1878- 1891	Britain			Law
Sir John Abbott	Con	1891- 1892	QC	QC	70	Law/Lecturer
Sir John Thompson	Con	1892- 1894	NS	NS	48-50	Law/Lecturer
Sir Mackenzie Bowell	Con	1894- 1896	Britain	ON	70-72	Journalist
Sir Charles Tupper	Con	1896- 1896	NS	NS	74	Doctor
Sir Wilfred Laurier	Lib	1896- 1911	QC	QC	54-69	Law
Sir Robert Borden	Con	1911- 1920	NS	NS	57-65	Law
Arthur Meighen	Con	1920- 1921	ON	ON	46-52	Law/Business
W. L. Mackenzie King	Lib	1921- 1926	ON	ON	47-73	Civil Service
Arthur Meighen	Con	1926- 1926	ON			Law/Business
W. L. Mackenzie King	Lib	1926- 1930	ON			Civil Service
R. B. Bennett	Con	1930- 1936	NB	AB	60-65	Law/Business
W. L. Mackenzie King	Lib	1936- 1948	ON			Civil Service
Louis St. Laurent	Lib	1948- 1957	QC	QC	66-75	Law
John Diefenbaker	Con	1957- 1963	ON	SK	61-67	Law
Lester B. Pearson	Lib	1963- 1968	ON	ON	65-70	Civil Service
Pierre Elliott Trudeau	Lib	1968- 1979	QC	QC	48-65	Law/Lecturer
Joseph Clark	Con	1979- 1980	AB	AB	39-41	Journalist
Pierre Elliott Trudeau	Lib	1980- 1984	QC			Law/Lecturer
John Turner	Lib	1984- 1984	Britain	ON	55	Law
Brian Mulroney	Con	1984- 1993	QC	QC	45-54	Law/Business
Kim Campbell	Con	1993- 1993	BC	BC	46	Law
Jean Chrétien	Lib	1993- 2003	QC	QC	59-69	Law
Paul Martin, Jr.	Lib	2003- 2006	ON	QC	65-67	Law/Business
Stephen Harper	Con	2006-	ON	AB	47-	Economist/Writer

(Source: Jackson & Jackson, Politics in Canada, 6th Edition: 2006)

Federal Cabinet Rules and Practices

Practices that govern the operation of Cabinet

The Cabinet operates according to a number of important rules and practices that frame Canada’s basic system of government.

Practice of Responsible Government

One of the most important practices governing the operation of the Cabinet is that of responsible government. While the Cabinet sits at the pinnacle of executive political power, it is nevertheless democratically responsible. In Canada, however, the Cabinet is not directly responsible to the people; citizens do not elect their Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers in direct elections. Instead, the Cabinet is responsible to the people’s elected representatives in the House of Commons (referred to as Members of Parliament or MPs). The Prime Minister and Cabinet can only continue to stay in power so long as they have the support of a majority of MPs in the House. If they ever lose this support, it is customary for them to resign their positions and for a general election to be held.

For more information on the practice of responsible government:
Mapleleafweb: Parliamentary Government in Canada: Basic Organization and Practices

Appointing the Prime Minister

The power to appoint the Prime Minister is technically held by the Crown and is exercised by the Governor General of Canada. However, in practice, the Governor General has very little discretion in making the appointment. Instead, it is customary to simply ask the leader of the political party with the most MPs in the House of Commons to assume the mantle of Prime Minister. This custom is due, in large part, to the practice of responsible government (see above) and the need for the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet to have the support of a majority of MPs in the House. The leader of largest political party in the House should, in theory, always have the best chance of gaining and maintaining this support.

It is also customary for the Prime Minister to be an elected member of the House of Commons. There are, however, some exceptions to the rule. It may be, for example, that a Prime Minister steps down and his/her party selects a new leader who has not yet stood for election. In such a case, the new leader may still assume the office of Prime Minister, but only on condition that s/he immediately run in a by-election.

Selecting Cabinet Ministers

Once appointed, the Prime Minister selects persons to sit in the Cabinet. In making such selections, the Prime Minister often follows several different customs and traditions.

The Prime Minister usually appoints elected Members of Parliament to Cabinet, although, it is permissible to choose those who are not elected to serve. Moreover, a Prime Minister generally appoints MPs solely from his/her political party to serve (unless it is a coalition government). In this way, the Prime Minister often looks to the best and brightest members of his/her party. A Prime Minister may also look to use his/her power to smooth over divisions within the party by, for example, appointing a chief rival to a key Cabinet position.

It is also customary (although, not mandatory) for the Prime Minister to select a Cabinet that is representative of Canada’s regional and linguistic traditions. The Prime Minister will often look to have at least one Cabinet Minister from each province or region in Canada. This custom stems, in large part, from the fact that Canada is a federation and that the Senate has never adequately performed its intended role of representing provincial interests in the federal government. It is also tradition for the Prime Minister to attempt to strike an appropriate balance in Cabinet between the interests of French and English Canada; typically one-third of Cabinet Ministers are French, with the remainder being English. The precise regional and linguistic makeup of a Cabinet, however, often depends on the pool of MPs elected. It may be the case that the Prime Minister simply does not have enough qualified MPs from a particular region or linguistic group, and may not make a related Cabinet appointment.

Cabinet Solidarity & Secrecy

The Cabinet has traditionally been regarded as a collective decision-making body, although it is often the case that the Prime Minister, Cabinet committees, or individual Ministers, will make decisions alone. Regardless of which Ministers (or how many) are involved in making a decision, the Cabinet operates on the principle of Cabinet solidarity. According to this principle, all Members of the Cabinet must publicly defend all Cabinet policies or resign. A classic example of this practice occurred in 2005 when Joe Comuzzi, a Minister of State in the Martin Liberal government, resigned his post on the grounds that he did not support government legislation legalizing same-sex marriages.

In addition to the practice of solidarity, the Cabinet also operates under the principle of Cabinet secrecy or confidentiality. In this regard, Cabinet Ministers are not to disclose information about Cabinet deliberations. Such confidentiality is meant to protect state secrets, to prevent personal gain based on the privileged information available to Ministers, and to protect Cabinet deliberations (and possible discord) from being exploited by Opposition parties and the media. Accordingly, Cabinet documents are not normally made public for a period of 20 years.

Cabinet Committees

To this point, the Cabinet has been discussed as if a single body that meets to make decisions concerning government. While the Cabinet meets as a whole , much government business is also handled in specialized Cabinet committees. In organizing their Cabinets, many Prime Ministers have divided different Ministers into different committees based on their particular areas of public policy. For example, there may be an ‘Economic Committee,’ consisting of Cabinet Ministers who have portfolios related to the economy (such as the Trade Minister and the Minister of Industry).

Some Prime Ministers will also establish some form of a ‘Central’ or ‘Inner’ Cabinet committee, responsible for setting the general priorities and policies of government. This cabinet committee will be chaired by the Prime Minister him/herself, and will generally include only the most senior Cabinet Ministers. The Minister of Finance is almost always on this Inner cabinet committee. Others may include the Minister of Justice, the Minister of National Defence, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and other key ministers representing economic and social portfolios.

Issues and Debates on the Prime Minister and Cabinet

Responsible government, power of the prime minister, and representation

Weakening of Responsible Government

One important issue centres on the principle of responsible government and whether Canadians have an effective democracy in which government is democratically held accountable. As discussed earlier, Canada has a democratic system in which the government (the Prime Minister and Cabinet) is responsible to citizens’ elected representatives, that is, their Members of Parliament in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister and Cabinet cannot govern unless they have the support of a majority of the elected MPs in the House.

Many political scientists and commentators, however, contend there is an imbalance of power between the Cabinet and the House of Commons. Moreover, they suggest this imbalance limits the ability of MPs to adequately hold the Prime Minister and Cabinet accountable for their actions. According to this view, one major cause of this power imbalance relates to the Cabinet’s ability to use party discipline to ensure it has the support of its party members. With party discipline, a party leader will use certain tactics (such as the threat of demotion or expulsion from the party) to force his/her MPs to ‘tow the party line.’ Hence, when the House of Commons votes on legislation, MPs generally do not vote according to their own personal views, or even those of their constituents. Instead, they will vote according to the views of their party. When the Prime Minister and Cabinet wants to pass legislation in the House, they will use party discipline to ensure all Members of Parliament affiliated with the Party vote in support of the government.

Critics of party discipline argue, however, that these tactics undercut the ability of MPs to hold the government accountable. They contend that Members of Parliament are supposed to act as a democratic check on the Prime Minister and Cabinet, withdrawing support from the government divergences on leadership arise. Because of party discipline, critics argue, MPs are largely incapable of performing this function properly for fear of retribution. They suggest that correcting this practice involves reforming Parliament in such a manner that MPs would have greater freedom to vote against the government. This would include holding more free votes in the House of Commons, occasions when MPs could freely vote outside party lines.

Others defend the current system, arguing that concerns about party discipline and the powers of the Prime Minister and Cabinet in relation to those of Members of Parliament are overblown. This view contends the use of party discipline does not mean MPs may never disagree with party leadership. Dissent can be voiced in behind-closed-doors caucus meetings, or in one-on-one meetings with the Prime Minister and/or appropriate Members of Cabinet. To this end, proponents of this viewpoint suggest there are many cases in Canadian history where concerted dissent within the governing party has forced a Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet to reform a government initiative or policy, or drop it altogether. By contrast, those who in favour the party discipline approach often cite the US as an example of a model not to follow, noting that elected representatives have much greater independence from their political parties, resulting in a legislative process that is very slow and often stalled in political gridlock.

Increase in Prime Ministerial Power

Another important issue concerns the Cabinet as a decision-making body and the centralization of power at the hands of the Prime Minister. Prior to the 1960s, the Cabinet operated in a much more decentralized manner than it does today. Individual Cabinet Ministers had significantly greater autonomy and authority, largely administering their ministries and departments independently of one another, and from any Prime Ministerial interference. Strong Ministers could make many decisions without consulting their Cabinet colleagues, and tended to remain in charge of a single department for long periods of time. This system is referred to as a ‘departmentalized cabinet.’

After the 1960s, however, the departmentalized cabinet was replaced by the ‘institutionalized cabinet,’ in which Cabinet decision-making became far more centralized and individual Ministers lost much of their independence. This change was largely due to the enormous growth of the federation during this period, and the perceived need for government activities to become much more coordinated in addressing complex social and economic issues.

Moreover, as the Cabinet became more institutionalized, and less departmentalized, the Prime Minister became a much more dominant figure in government decision-making. The Prime Minister, either alone or in consultation with select Ministers, will often set the general priorities and direction of the government, and will then use his or her executive staff (at either the Prime Minister’s Office or the Privy Council Office) to oversee and coordinate the activities of Cabinet Ministers to ensure that those priorities are being met. Cabinet Ministers today make most of their important decisions in consultation with the Prime Minister and his/her executive staffers.

Some have argued that these changes in the operation of Cabinet have resulted in too much political power being centralized in the hands of the Prime Minister. As the Prime Minister is able to hire and fire Cabinet Ministers at will and plays such an important role in ministerial decisions, there is very little that acts as a balance against the exercising of these powers. Moreover, the argument goes that this centralization of power is made worse by the inability of MPs in the House to adequately hold the Prime Minister responsible for his/her actions (see the previous section). The result can be despotic behavior by the Prime Minister and/or acts of corruption in the operation of government. The 2006 Gomery Inquiry into the Sponsorship Scandal, for example, concluded that a major cause of the scandal was a lack of adequate democratic oversight of the activities of the Prime Minister and the Prime Minister’s Office.

Others, however, have argued in favour of greater power in the hands of the Prime Minister, asserting that such powers have been invaluable in helping to move away from the more ad hoc and incremental decision-making of the past, under the departmentalized cabinet system. With the leadership of the Prime Minister and his or her executive staffers, policy is conducted with more effective coordination, and with the broader picture in mind. It has also been argued that the Prime Minister is not as free of checks and balances as some might suggest, in that the Prime Minister must operate within the boundaries of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and judicial review of government legislation by the Canadian court system. The Prime Minister is also limited by Canada’s federal system, which grants many powers and jurisdictions to the provinces and their respective leaders. Finally, the Prime Minister is not completely immune from dissent within his or her own party.

Under-Representation in Cabinet

Another controversial issue pertaining to the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet concerns the social and ethnic make-up of the Cabinet. The selection of Cabinet Ministers is guided by several important customs and conventions. While these tenets provide for strong regional and linguistic representation in the Cabinet, critics argue they do not adequately address the representation of several other important social groups.

See the Cabinet Rules & Practices section of this article for more information on the customs regarding the selection of Cabinet Ministers.

Nearly all of Canada’s minority and vulnerable groups have been consistently un- or under-represented in Cabinet. In this regard, no significant room has ever specifically been made in Cabinet for women, Aboriginal Peoples, workers, the poor, and major visible minority groups. Moreover, there has consistently been an over-representation of white males, and those with business and legal backgrounds.

Critics have argued this under-representation can lead to narrowness in the ideological and political perspectives that originate from within Cabinet, as well as an inability to properly understand the needs and interests of many minority and vulnerable groups – and consequently, a diverse Canadian society. As such, these critics advocate key reforms, such as changing the conventions regarding the selection of Cabinet Ministers so there are certain thresholds for women and members of other groups represented in Canadian society. Others have argued against such reforms, asserting that full representation of Canadian society in Cabinet is impossible; in many cases there are simply not enough Members of Parliament with the relevant social characteristics to provide full representation. Those who hold this view would also suggest that Cabinet, and the government/state in general, can be sensitive to the interests and needs of minority and vulnerable groups without those groups being represented in Cabinet.

Links for Further Information

List of links for more on this topic

Mapleleafweb Links

Prime Minister & Supreme Court of Canada Appointments

Government Links

Research Links

The Monarchy in Canada

Jay Makarenko — Fri, 01 Jun 2007 00:00:00 -0600

Canada has a long monarchical tradition, beginning with the chief leadership of Aboriginal groups, the rule of French monarchs in New France, and British monarchs in Canada. This article presents Canada's monarchal traditions and institutions: it discusses the concept of monarchy, its history in Canada, its relationship with other governmental institutions, the profile of the current monarchy, as well as the debates and issues facing the monarchy in Canada.

Introduction to Monarchical Government

What is a monarchy? What are different types of monarchies?

The Monarchy in Canadian History

Historical overview of monarchies in Canada

Monarchy & Canadian Government

How the monarchy works in Canadian government.

Queen Elizabeth II Backgrounder

Introduction to Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada

Current Debates on the Canadian Monarchy

The debate on whether to keep the monarchy in Canada.

Links to More Information

List of links for more on this topic

Introduction to Monarchical Government

What is a monarchy? What are different types of monarchies?

Monarchy as a Form of Government

A monarchy is one of the oldest forms of government in history. In general, a monarchy is a government in which a single person rules. The term monarchy is derived from the Greek words monos (or “one”) and archein (or “to rule”). We can distinguish monarchies from other forms of government, such as oligarchies (rule by the few) and democracies (rule by the many).

A “monarch” refers to the head of state or ruler of a monarchy. While there are no absolute rules, there are several characteristics of monarchies:

Most monarchs hold office for life. Once a monarch enters into office, s/he cannot be removed from rule (except under very rare circumstances or revolt). A monarch, however, may voluntarily choose to renounce his/her position voluntarily in a process called “abdication.”
Most monarchs are succeeded, upon death or abdication, by members of their own family (often the eldest child). Stable monarchies have a long legacy of rule by a single-family lineage or bloodline.
Most monarchs hold traditional titles such as "King," "Queen," "Emperor,” or "Empress."

Absolute versus Constitutional Monarchies

Historically, the monarchy as a system of government has evolved from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. In an absolute monarchy the monarch has complete power over his/her dominions, with no laws or opposition groups to limit the monarch’s decisions or actions. This form of monarchical government was most evident throughout the world up until the 18th century. Some absolute monarchies are still present today, such as those of Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Oman, Swaziland, and the Vatican City. The monarchs of Jordan and Morocco continue to hold considerable power (albeit not absolute power).

Beginning in the 16th century, the idea of popular sovereignty (or rule by the people) began to challenge absolute monarchies, especially in Europe. This tension came to a head during two important revolutions, the American Revolution (1775) and the French Revolution (1789), which were democratic movements against the power of the British and French monarchs, respectively. During this period many European monarchical governments evolved into constitutional monarchies. Under this form of government the monarch is still recognized as the head of state, however, there are substantial constitutional restraints on his/her power. Most modern constitutional monarchies have strong representative democracies in which power lies with an elected legislative body (i.e., Parliament) and elected leader (i.e., Prime Minister). The monarch is often just a symbolic figure with no real power to influence political decision-making. Today, constitutional monarchies exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, Japan, Malaysia, Spain, and Sweden, among others.

List of Countries with Monarchies (By Region) *(Current as of July 2007)

African Monarchs

Country	Type of Monarchy
Lesotho	Constitutional
Morocco	Constitutional
Swaziland	Absolute

Asian Monarchs

Country	Type of Monarchy
Bahrain	Constitutional
Bhutan	Constitutional
Brunei	Constitutional
Cambodia	Constitutional
Japan	Constitutional
Jordan	Constitutional
Kuwait	Constitutional
Malaysia	Constitutional
Nepal	Constitutional
Oman	Absolute
Qatar	Absolute
Saudi Arabia	Absolute
Thailand	Constitutional

European Monarchs

Country	Type of Monarchy
Andorra	Constitutional
Belgium	Constitutional
Denmark	Constitutional
Liechtenstein	Constitutional
Luxembourg	Constitutional
Monaco	Constitutional
Netherlands	Constitutional
Norway	Constitutional
Spain	Constitutional
Sweden	Constitutional
United Kingdom & Commonwealth Realms*	Constitutional
Vatican City	Absolute

*Includes Canada

Oceanic Monarchs

Country	Type of Monarchy
Samoa	Constitutional
Tonga	Constitutional

The Monarchy in Canadian History

Historical overview of monarchies in Canada

Canada has extensive historical ties to monarchy. Both the British and French monarchs have ruled over parts of what is known as Canada today. Even prior to European colonization of the region, Aboriginal groups formed quasi-monarchical forms of government. The following provides an overview of the history of monarchy in Canada.

Early Monarchies in Canada

While monarchy in Canada is commonly associated with the British, there have been other monarchical rulers in Canadian history. To begin with, there were many different Aboriginal groups in Canada prior to the arrival of European settlers, each with their own culture and decision-making processes. Aboriginal societies were largely governed by unwritten customs and codes of conduct. Many Aboriginal groups practiced consensus decision-making in which the community (or large components of it) would deliberate issues together.

While no Aboriginal group in Canada had a formalized monarchy in the modern sense of the term, many did have some form of aboriginal chiefdom. A Chief's powers varied from one society to the next. In some instances the Chief would exercise considerable authority and influence on the decisions of the group, while in others the Chief was more of a symbolic or ceremonial figure. Aboriginal Chiefdoms tended not to be hereditary positions. Instead, the community often chose Chiefs on the basis of their reputation for generosity, wisdom, spirituality, courage, or diplomacy. In some groups, a person would only hold the position of Chief temporarily, in order to deal with a specific issue or circumstance faced by the community.

Another early monarchy in Canada was the French monarchy, which ruled New France (or “Nouvelle-France”) from 1534 to 1763. At its peak in 1712, the territory of New France extended from Newfoundland (in the east) to Lake Superior (in the west), and from Hudson Bay (in the north) to the Gulf of Mexico (in the south). Monarchical rule in the French colony reflected the politics of France; during this period the French monarchy had absolute rule over its dominions, and exercised this rule in New France through a Colonial Governor (or representative of the Monarch). The governor was responsible only to the French monarchy, not to the colony’s citizens.

French rule in North America came to an end following the Seven Years’ War between France and Britain. The war was part of a worldwide conflict involving Great Britain and Prussia on one side, and France, Austria, Sweden, Russia, and Spain on the other. The British eventually defeated the French, taking control over French colonies (in what is known today as North America) through the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The British renamed New France the Province of Quebec.

Monarchs of New France

Monarch	Date
François I	1515-47
Henri II	1547-59
François II	1559-60
Charles IX	1560-74
Henri III	1574-89
Henri IV	1589-1610
Louis XIII	1610-43
Louis XIV	1643-1715
Louis XV	1715-74

British Monarchy in Canada

The British Empire in North America began in the late 15th century when John Cabot discovered the island of Newfoundland for England. Initially, the British controlled the eastern colonies of North America, which include the eastern seaboard (of what is now Canada and the United States), as well as several Caribbean islands. Following the defeat of the French in the Seven Years’ War, the British acquired the French colony of New France (what is presently Quebec, as well as parts of Ontario). Colonies were also developed along the western coast of North America (what is presently Vancouver Island, in British Columbia). The British, however, lost the American colonies during the American Revolution (1775).

Early monarchical rule in the British colonies of North America was absolutist. British monarchs appointed colonial governors to rule over the colonies and represent their interests; these colonial governors were the beginnings of Canada’s present day offices of Governor General and Lieutenant Governors. Over time, however, monarchical rule in the Canadian colonies began to weaken (see below).

Monarchical Rule and Democratic Reform

During the 1700 and 1800s, monarchical rule in Canada began to evolve with the appearance of two democratic reforms: representative government and responsible government. Representative government first appeared in 1756, in the Canadian colony of Nova Scotia (which included what is known today as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island). Representative government is a system of government in which the law-making body (i.e. the cabinet and legislatures) is at least partially elected by the people, as opposed to simply being appointed by the Monarch. Representative government followed in the other colonies of Canada, including present day Quebec and Ontario (1791), Newfoundland (1832), and British Columbia (in the 1860s).

For more information on representative government in Canada:

Canada in the Making: Representative Government

While the Canadian colonies could elect representatives, these elected officials often had very little power and were generally dominated by the colonial governor (who in turn was responsible to the Monarch and Parliament in Britain). This began to change in the mid-19th century with the arrival of responsible government to Canada. Under this system of government, political decision-makers (such as cabinets) became indirectly responsible to regular citizens in the Canadian colonies. In order to stay power, cabinet were required to hold the support of the majority of elective representatives in their respective legislatures, as opposed to simply holding the support of the colonial governor.

For more information on responsible government in Canada:

The result of these democratic reforms was a constraining of the power of the colonial governors in the Canadian colonies. The British Monarch and Parliament could no longer rule absolutely through their colonial governors. Instead, political decision making fell to colonial cabinets and legislatures, who were, in turn, elected by and responsible to regular colonial citizens.

Confederation and Constitutional Monarchy

In 1867, the British Parliament passed the British North America Act (or “BNA Act”). The BNA Act united the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Canada into the Dominion of Canada. Although it was a British statute, the BNA Act was drafted entirely by Canadians at the Quebec Conference of 1864; it was passed by the British without amendment.

For more information on Confederation negotiations:

The BNA Act, 1867 granted Canada semi-independence from the British Empire. The new nation had jurisdiction over its own domestic policy and issues. However, the British government retained control over foreign policy and any amendments to the Canadian constitution. Full constitutional independence was not achieved until 1982, with the patriation of the Constitution and the passing of the Canada Act, 1982.

For more information on Canadian constitutional independence:

The BNA Act, 1867 also officially established Canada as a constitutional monarchy, and the British monarch as the Canadian Head of State. The British monarchy remained the executive authority over the nation and was represented in Canada by the Governor General (federally) and Lieutenant Governors (provincially/territorially). In practice, however, executive and legislative power was exercised by the country’s elected legislatures (the federal House of Commons and the provincial/territorial legislatures) and their respective cabinets.

Sovereigns Since Canadian Confederation (1876 – 2005)

Sovereign	Accession	Death/abdication
Her Majesty Queen Victoria	June 20, 1837	January 22, 1901 (death)
His Majesty King Edward VII	January 22, 1901	May 6, 1910 (death)
His Majesty King George V	May 6, 1910	January 20, 1936 (death)
His Majesty King Edward VIII	January 20, 1936	December 10, 1936 (abdication)
His Majesty King George VI	December 10, 1936	February 6, 1952 (death)
Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II	February 6, 1952

"Canadianizing" the Monarchy

The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as both an independent nation and a constitutional monarchy. However, the monarchy itself remained a strictly British institution. Since that time, however, reforms have been instituted which have "Canadianized" the monarchy in Canada.

The first of these reforms was the passing of the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act by the British Parliament. This Act replaced the concept of a single monarchy throughout the British Empire with multiple monarchies, held by the same person. Previously, the British King or Queen was the monarch of colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, simply by virtue of being the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. With the passage of the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act, however, the King or Queen was designated as the monarch of these countries, as separate monarchies and kingdoms. Canada thus continued to recognize a British King or Queen as its monarch. However, the country had gained its own royal office and title; the monarchy in Canada was no longer known as the King or Queen of the United Kingdom, but simply as the King or Queen of Canada.

A second key reform came in 1931, when the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, 1931. The Statute officially recognized the autonomy of all Commonwealth Nations, as well as gave all Commonwealth Realms, including Canada, legal powers over the monarchy in their own jurisdiction. (A Commonwealth Realm is any nation that recognizes the monarch in Britain as its Head of State.) As such, any changes to the rules of succession (the procedures by which a new monarch in Britain can be chosen) or royal styles and titles (the manner by which a monarch describes him/herself, or is described by others) require the consent of all Parliaments of the Commonwealth Realms. For example, if the Act of Settlement — which provides that only Protestants may become the monarch — were to be changed to allow Catholics to accede to the Throne, this would require Parliamentary approval by Canada and all other Commonwealth Realms.

The convention regarding the altering of royal styles and titles was again amended in 1953 to allow each Commonwealth Realm to adopt its own practices, as suited to its particular monarchy.

For more information on Canadian Royal Styles and Titles:

Heritage Canada: The Canadian Monarchy

Canadian Government & the Monarchy

How the monarchy works in Canadian government.

Canada is a constitutional monarchy. In other words, the monarchy in Canada is recognized as the Head of State and centre of state authority. This role, however, is essentially symbolic; today, most real political power in Canada lies with elected politicians. The following provides an overview of the monarchy in contemporary Canadian government.

The Monarchy & the Canadian Parliament

The Canadian Parliament is one of the fundamental institutions in Canadian government, and is responsible for the development and enactment of federal laws. The Canadian Parliament is composed of three parts: the House of Commons, the Senate, and the Monarchy. In theory, for a law to come into effect, it must be approved by all three parts of Parliament.

The House of Commons is the elected legislative body of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons (called Members of Parliament or MPs) are elected by Canadians to serve five-year terms, although these terms often end up being shorter. These elected representatives deliberate and pass government legislation. It is also important to note that the government of the day is represented by the political party with the greatest number of elected representatives in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister is the leader of the political party with the most elected representatives.

For more information on the House of Commons:

The Senate is the non-elected legislative body of Parliament. Members of the Senate (called Senators) are not elected directly by Canadians, but appointed by the federal government. The Senate was designed to act as a counter-balance to the democratically elected House of Commons (as a body of “sober second thought”) and as an avenue of regional representation in Parliament. Each region of Canada is represented by a given number of Senators in the Red Chamber. In theory, no law can pass without approval by the Senate; however, in practice, the Senate very rarely exercises this power and generally approves all laws passed by the House of Commons.

For more information on the Senate:

The third component of Parliament is the monarchy. Again, in theory, no law can be passed without approval by the monarchy (before a bill officially becomes law in Canada, it must be given Royal Assent). The monarchy also has the power to appoint the Prime Minister, and to summon and dissolve Parliament. In practice, however, the monarchy rarely exercises these powers independently. The monarch (or its representative in Canada, in the form of the Governor General) automatically gives Royal Assent to all legislation passed by the House of Commons. The actual decision to summon and dissolve Parliament is made by the Prime Minister. Its execution by the monarchy is almost always a formality.

Monarchy as the Head of State

The primary function of the monarchy in Canada is to act as a symbol of the Canadian state and nation. This function is rooted in the tradition of the monarch’s position as Canada’s Head of State. The Head of State is the chief public representative of the nation, whose role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the State and its institutions, and exercising their political powers, functions, and duties granted under the nation’s constitution. As a concept, the Head of State can be distinguished from the Head of Government. The latter refers to the leader of the main government decision-making body. The Head of Government represents the government of the day, while the head of state represents the nation as whole (its institutions, peoples, traditions, etc.).

Some forms of government blur the lines between the Head of State and Head of Government. For example, in absolute monarchies such as that of Saudi Arabia, the Head of State and Head of Government are the same person. Presidential systems, such as that found in the United States of America, also bring the two together under the Office of the President. However, in Parliamentary systems such as that found in Canada, the two exist as separate and distinct offices. The Head of Government in Canada is the Prime Minister at the federal level, and the Premiers at the provincial/territorial level. These elected politicians are the leaders of their respective governments of the day. The Head of State, in contrast, is the monarch of Canada. The King or Queen, through the Governor General of Canada, represents the nation as a whole, its institutions, peoples, traditions, etc.

Symbolism of the Monarchy

As the monarchy holds no real power in Parliament (see above) it cannot “represent the nation” in the political or legal sense of the phrase. The nation’s legislatures, courts, and heads of government perform this political and legal representation. Instead, the monarch’s representation of the nation is social or cultural. It is supposed to embody or personify the “spirit” of the nation — both to the nation itself and to the world. As a result, the monarchy acts as a force of unity and continuity for the Canadian nation.

This symbolic function of the monarchy can be seen in many aspects of Canadian life. For example:

The face of the monarch appears on the Canadian currency. This symbolizes the legality of publicly used coins and bills.
Publicly owned lands and corporations in Canada are referred to as “Crown lands” or “Crown corporations.” This symbolizes their ownership and use by the Canadian state and peoples.
Other important public institutions in Canada also bear the symbolism of the monarchy, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (which protect the public), Royal Commissions (which investigate matters in depth in the public’s interest), and Crown prosecutors (which prosecute crimes for the public good).
The Official Opposition in the House of Commons is referred to as “Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition” (or “His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition” in the case of a male monarch). Criticism of the government is thus legitimized in the name of the monarchy.
Canadian military units and equipment often bear the symbolism of the monarchy. For example, all Canada naval ships have the prefix “HMCS” which is short for “Her Majesty’s Canadian Ship.” This symbolizes both the position of the monarch as the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces, as well as the role of the military in protecting national interests domestically and abroad.

Representatives of the Monarch

While Canada has its own monarchy, the monarch has never actually resided in Canada. Moreover, as the monarch of Canada is also the monarch of all other Commonwealth Realms (including the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand), s/he does not have the ability to attend to all the royal duties s/he would have to perform in Canada. To compensate for this, the monarch has representatives in Canada that perform the day-to-day activities of the office.

There are two sorts of representatives, which reflect the two distinct levels of government in Canada. At the federal or national level, the Governor General represents the monarch. The Governor General performs all royal duties relating to the federal Parliament, foreign relations, and national honours and ceremonies.

For more information on the Governor General:

At the provincial level, the monarch’s representatives are called Lieutenant Governors. There is one Lieutenant Governor for each province in Canada; each is responsible for performing all royal duties relating to provincial legislatures and provincial honours and ceremonies.

While Canada’s northern territories (that is, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut) do not have Lieutenant Governors per se, in recent years the Office of Territorial Commissioner has evolved into one that is analogous to that of the Lieutenant Governor. Canada’s written constitution does not grant these Commissioners the role of representing the monarchy. However, the office has, through convention, become the de facto territorial representative of the Crown.

At the national level, the Prime Minister appoints the Governor General. In theory, the provincial Lieutenant Governors are to be appointed by the Governor General. However, in practice, the Prime Minister, in consultation with the provincial or territorial premier, also appoints both the provincial Lieutenant Governors and Territorial Commissioners.

For more information on provincial Lieutenant Governors:

For more information on territorial Commissioners:

Queen Elizabeth II Backgrounder

Introduction to Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada.

Queen Elizabeth II is Canada's current monarch. The following provides background information on her family, personal biography, and ties with Canada.

The Queen’s Personal Background

Queen Elizabeth II was born Elizabeth Alexandra Mary on April 21, 1926. Her parents were Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George IV) and Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth; also commonly referred to as the “Queen Mum”). At her birth, Elizabeth was born third in line to the Throne, after her uncle (later King Edward VIII) and her father.

Elizabeth was educated at home with her younger sister Princess Margaret. She studied constitutional history and law, art, and music. During World War II it was suggested that Elizabeth and Margaret be evacuated to Canada. However, the Royal Family decided to remain together in the United Kingdom. In 1945, Elizabeth joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service, a British defence reserve service during World War II, and was trained as a driver. The Queen was the first and only female member of the Royal Family to actually serve in the military.

In 1947, Elizabeth married Prince Philipos of Greece and Denmark. At the time of the marriage, Prince Philip renounced his claim to the Greek monarchy (he later took the title Duke of Edinburgh). Together they had four children: Prince Charles (1948), Princess Anne (1950), Prince Andrew (1960), and Prince Edward (1964). As the eldest child, Prince Charles is next in line to the Throne.

The Queen's Rise to the Throne

Elizabeth’s rise to the Throne was the result of a controversial period in British royal history. Following the death of her grandfather, King George IV in 1936, her uncle, King Edward VIII, assumed the monarchy. However, King Edward VIII abdicated the Throne less than a year later, in order to marry Wallis Simpson, an American divorcée. Members of the British government had deemed it impossible for Edward to marry a divorcée on the grounds the King was the head of the Church of England.

Following the abdication of King Edward VIII, Elizabeth’s father, King George V, assumed the monarchy. King George V’s health began to drastically decline in 1950, causing Elizabeth to stand in for her farther at public events. In 1952, while in Kenya en route to Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth’s father died; she immediately became the new monarch. Elizabeth’s coronation took place in June 1953. She was crowned Queen Elizabeth II.

The Queen's Activities in Canada

Queen Elizabeth II has made numerous royal visits to Canada during her reign, marking important events in both her own history and the history of Canada. Her first trip to Canada was in 1951, as Princess Elizabeth. In 1959, the Queen, accompanied by her husband the Duke of Edinburgh, spent 45 days in Canada, touring all provinces and both territories (Nunavut, Canada's third territory was established years later). During that visit the Queen also attended the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway.

Other important royal visits include the Queen’s attendance at the 1967 Olympic Games in Montreal, the 1977 Silver Jubilee tour, and her participation in the official ceremonies marking the patriation of the Canadian Constitution in 1982. In 2002, the Queen visited Canada in honour of her Golden Jubilee (the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to the Throne).

In addition to her periodic visits to Canada, Queen Elizabeth II also honours significant achievements and exemplary service of Canadians through national awards including the Order of Canada, the Order of Military Merit, the Order of Merit of the Police Forces, and The Royal Victorian Order.

The Queen is also the patron of many Canadian organizations and charities, including the Canadian Cancer Society, the Canadian Red Cross Society, and Save the Children Canada.

For more information on royal awards and charities in Canada:

Governor General of Canada: List of Canadian Honours

Current Debates on the Monarchy

The debate on whether to keep the monarchy in Canada.

A continuing debate in Canada centres on whether the nation should continue to have a monarchy. The following section provides an introduction to this debate by outlining different positions and their arguments, as well as summaries of public opinion polls in Canada on the monarchy.

Constitutional Monarchy versus Republic

Two positions important to the debate on the monarchy in Canada are the “constitutional monarchy position,” which favours continuing with the monarchy, and the “republic position,” which favours doing away with the monarchy and making Canada a republic.

It is important to note that this debate has more to do with the symbolism of Canadian government rather than its actual workings. While the monarchy is theoretically the source of authority in Canada, in practice it does not hold any real power. Its position is mainly symbolic. Hence, the issue being debated is whether or not to maintain a monarchy as the symbol of national authority and identity.

Canada as a Constitutional Monarchy

This position holds that Canada should have a constitutional monarchy as its form of government, with a King or Queen as its symbolic head of state. Several arguments are offered in support of this position:

Division of political responsibilities: One of the advantages of having a Head of Government separate from the Head of State is that it makes the best use of the Prime Minister’s time. As only the Head of Government, the Prime Minister can focus on the serious day-to-day responsibilities affiliated with managing the federal government. The monarch and his/her representatives can attend to the more ceremonial responsibilities, also of importance to the nation’s business.
Impartiality of the monarchy: The monarchy is better suited to act as the symbolic representative of the nation than the Head of Government. The Prime Minister, for example, is directly tied to the partisan politics of the day. In contrast, the monarch can be considered impartial or “above politics” and, hence, better able to act as a symbol of the nation as a whole.
Canadian identity: By continuing to maintain ties to the monarchy, Canadians’ ties to their national history and identity are invariably strengthened. The monarchy not only reminds Canadians of their unique historical development, but also of their significant cultural differences from other nations in the region, in particular, the United States.

However, even if one supports the idea of Canada as a constitutional monarchy, there can be continued disagreement over the precise nature of the monarchy. There is the question as to whether to continue links to British monarchs, or to make the monarchy a purely Canadian institution (for example, by having a Canadian citizen and resident as the monarch of Canada).

Arguments in favour of maintaining the British link tend to focus on the international celebrity status and media power of the British Royal Family. In addition, there may be some advantage to sharing a monarch, including greater cultural and social ties with other Commonwealth countries around the world.

Arguments in support of making the monarchy a purely Canadian institution focus on the problems of a British-linked monarchy in representing the modern identity of Canada. The current monarchy reflects Canada’s conquest, and its colonization by the peoples and culture of the United Kingdom. This may be an inappropriate symbol for a modern, independent nation that has an important French and aboriginal component, and is becoming increasingly multi-ethnic, multi-racial, and multi-religious.

Canada as a Republic

This position holds that Canada should do away with the monarchy and become a republic. A republic is a form of government in which political authority and identity is invested in “the people” (that is, the citizens at large). This is in opposition to a constitutional monarchy where political authority and identity is invested (at least symbolically) in a hereditary royal lineage.

Pro-republic arguments often overlap with those in favour of making the monarchy a purely Canadian institution (see above). As a modern, independent, and multicultural nation, this view holds that Canada should not have a Head of State that is linked to British conquest and colonization. By becoming a republic, Canada would shed this colonial heritage.

However, at the heart of the republican argument is the rejection of the idea of a monarchy itself. A monarchy represents a form of government in which a single person (because of his/her birth) holds great political authority and prestige over all other citizens. Even the symbolism of such a form of government is inappropriate for a nation that attaches high value to democracy, social equality, and individual liberty.

One of the political challenges facing republicanism is the issue of what to replace the monarchy with. The office of Head of State could be given to the Head of Government. As such, the Prime Minister (federally) and Premiers (provincially) would become the Heads of State and ceremonial figures in their respective jurisdictions. Another possibility would be to create an alternative elected office that would act as Head of State. Many Parliamentary systems around the world have a Prime Minister as their head of government and an elected President (or some other title) as their Head of State. One reason why the monarchy has staying power is the difficulty in finding an alternative option that Canada’s as a whole would support.

Public Opinion Polls

In 2002 several polls were taken during the Queen Elizabeth II’s Golden Jubilee (the 50th anniversary of the Queen’s accession to the Throne). In general, the polls indicate that Canadians are divided evenly on whether or not to abolish the monarchy.

The Ekos poll commissioned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), Radio-Canada, the Toronto Star, and La Presse found the following:

43 percent of those polled agreed that it was time to abolish the monarchy, while 41 percent disagreed.
Support for abolishing the monarchy was the highest in Quebec (54 percent), British Columbia, and Atlantic Canada (both 42 percent). It was lowest in the Prairies (25 percent) and Alberta (30 percent).
Males tended to support abolishing the monarchy more (47 percent) than females (33 percent).
Support for abolishing the monarchy was highest amongst those between the ages of 45-64 (46 percent), and lowest amongst those 25 or younger, and 65 or older (both 33 percent).
Full Text of the 2002 Ekos Poll on the Monarchy in Canada (PDF)

The Ipsos-Reid poll commissioned by The Globe and Mail and the Canadian Television Network (CTV) found the following:

79 percent of those polled supported the constitutional monarchy as Canada’s form of government.
62 percent believed the constitutional monarchy defines Canada’s identity and should continue.
48 percent of those polled would have preferred a republic style of government with an elected Head of State.
65 percent believed the Royal Family should not have any formal role in government, being “simply celebrities.”
Full Text of the 2002 Ipsos-Reid Poll on the Monarchy in Canada (PDF)

The Léger Marketing poll found the following:

50 percent of those polled supported maintaining Queen Elizabeth II as Canada’s monarch, while 43 percent did not.
56 percent of those polled supported keeping Queen Elizabeth II on the Canadian dollar coin, while 39 percent did not.
Full Text of the 2002 Léger Marketing Poll on the Monarchy in Canada (PDF)

Several national public opinion polls on the monarchy were taken in 2005. These polls again indicated that Canadians were evenly divided in their support of the monarchy. Highlights of the polls are as follows:

In a March 2005 poll prepared by Pollara Inc., 46 percent of those polled supported Canada replacing the British Monarch with a Canadian Head of State.
In a March 2005 poll undertaken by Decima Research, 71 percent of those polled suggested they had a favourable impression of the Royal Family.
In an April 2005 poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid, 55 percent of those polled believed Canada should disassociate from the British Monarchy when Queen Elizabeth II’s reign ends.

Executive Branch of Government

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Responsible government, power of the prime minister, and representation

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The Monarchy in Canada

What is a monarchy? What are different types of monarchies?

Historical overview of monarchies in Canada

How the monarchy works in Canadian government.

Introduction to Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada

The debate on whether to keep the monarchy in Canada.

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Introduction to Monarchical Government

Monarchy as a Form of Government

Absolute versus Constitutional Monarchies

List of Countries with Monarchies (By Region) *(Current as of July 2007)

African Monarchs

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The Monarchy in Canadian History

Early Monarchies in Canada

Monarchs of New France

British Monarchy in Canada

Monarchical Rule and Democratic Reform

Confederation and Constitutional Monarchy

"Canadianizing" the Monarchy

Canadian Government & the Monarchy

The Monarchy & the Canadian Parliament

Monarchy as the Head of State

Symbolism of the Monarchy

Representatives of the Monarch

Queen Elizabeth II Backgrounder

The Queen’s Personal Background

The Queen's Rise to the Throne

The Queen's Activities in Canada

Current Debates on the Monarchy

Constitutional Monarchy versus Republic

Canada as a Constitutional Monarchy

Canada as a Republic

Public Opinion Polls

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